We can use the print() function to print out variables or strings:
print("hello")
[1] "hello"
x <- 10
print(x)
[1] 10
x <- mtcars
print(mtcars)
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4 Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4 Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1 Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1 Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360.0 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2 Valiant 18.1 6 225.0 105 2.76 3.460 20.22 1 0 3 1 Duster 360 14.3 8 360.0 245 3.21 3.570 15.84 0 0 3 4 Merc 240D 24.4 4 146.7 62 3.69 3.190 20.00 1 0 4 2 Merc 230 22.8 4 140.8 95 3.92 3.150 22.90 1 0 4 2 Merc 280 19.2 6 167.6 123 3.92 3.440 18.30 1 0 4 4 Merc 280C 17.8 6 167.6 123 3.92 3.440 18.90 1 0 4 4 Merc 450SE 16.4 8 275.8 180 3.07 4.070 17.40 0 0 3 3 Merc 450SL 17.3 8 275.8 180 3.07 3.730 17.60 0 0 3 3 Merc 450SLC 15.2 8 275.8 180 3.07 3.780 18.00 0 0 3 3 Cadillac Fleetwood 10.4 8 472.0 205 2.93 5.250 17.98 0 0 3 4 Lincoln Continental 10.4 8 460.0 215 3.00 5.424 17.82 0 0 3 4 Chrysler Imperial 14.7 8 440.0 230 3.23 5.345 17.42 0 0 3 4 Fiat 128 32.4 4 78.7 66 4.08 2.200 19.47 1 1 4 1 Honda Civic 30.4 4 75.7 52 4.93 1.615 18.52 1 1 4 2 Toyota Corolla 33.9 4 71.1 65 4.22 1.835 19.90 1 1 4 1 Toyota Corona 21.5 4 120.1 97 3.70 2.465 20.01 1 0 3 1 Dodge Challenger 15.5 8 318.0 150 2.76 3.520 16.87 0 0 3 2 AMC Javelin 15.2 8 304.0 150 3.15 3.435 17.30 0 0 3 2 Camaro Z28 13.3 8 350.0 245 3.73 3.840 15.41 0 0 3 4 Pontiac Firebird 19.2 8 400.0 175 3.08 3.845 17.05 0 0 3 2 Fiat X1-9 27.3 4 79.0 66 4.08 1.935 18.90 1 1 4 1 Porsche 914-2 26.0 4 120.3 91 4.43 2.140 16.70 0 1 5 2 Lotus Europa 30.4 4 95.1 113 3.77 1.513 16.90 1 1 5 2 Ford Pantera L 15.8 8 351.0 264 4.22 3.170 14.50 0 1 5 4 Ferrari Dino 19.7 6 145.0 175 3.62 2.770 15.50 0 1 5 6 Maserati Bora 15.0 8 301.0 335 3.54 3.570 14.60 0 1 5 8 Volvo 142E 21.4 4 121.0 109 4.11 2.780 18.60 1 1 4 2
We can format strings and variables together for printing in a few different ways:
The paste() function looks like this:
paste (..., sep = " ")
Where ... are the things you want to paste and sep is the separator you want between the pasted items, by default it is a space. For example:
print(paste('hello','world'))
[1] "hello world"
print(paste('hello','world',sep='-|-'))
[1] "hello-|-world"
paste0(..., collapse) is equivalent to paste(..., sep = "", collapse), slightly more efficiently.
paste0('hello','world')
srpintf() is a wrapper for the C function sprintf, that returns a character vector containing a formatted combination of text and variable values. Meaning you can use % codes to place in variables by specifying all of them at the end. This is best shown through example:
sprintf("%s is %f feet tall\n", "Sven", 7.1)
# THIS WILL PRODUCE AN ERROR BECAUSE 7.1 is a float, not an integer
sprintf("%s is %i feet tall\n", "Sven", 7.1)
Error in sprintf("%s is %i feet tall\n", "Sven", 7.1): invalid format '%i'; use format %f, %e, %g or %a for numeric objects
So you are now wondering, what are the letters in front of % for? How do I know which ones to use? THe full breakdown is available in the documentation:
help(sprintf)
| sprintf {base} | R Documentation |
A wrapper for the C function sprintf, that returns a character
vector containing a formatted combination of text and variable values.
sprintf(fmt, ...) gettextf(fmt, ..., domain = NULL)
fmt |
a character vector of format strings, each of up to 8192 bytes. |
... |
values to be passed into |
domain |
see |
sprintf is a wrapper for the system sprintf C-library
function. Attempts are made to check that the mode of the values
passed match the format supplied, and R's special values (NA,
Inf, -Inf and NaN) are handled correctly.
gettextf is a convenience function which provides C-style
string formatting with possible translation of the format string.
The arguments (including fmt) are recycled if possible a whole
number of times to the length of the longest, and then the formatting
is done in parallel. Zero-length arguments are allowed and will give
a zero-length result. All arguments are evaluated even if unused, and
hence some types (e.g., "symbol" or "language", see
typeof) are not allowed.
The following is abstracted from Kernighan and Ritchie (see References): however the actual implementation will follow the C99 standard and fine details (especially the behaviour under user error) may depend on the platform.
The string fmt contains normal characters,
which are passed through to the output string, and also conversion
specifications which operate on the arguments provided through
.... The allowed conversion specifications start with a
% and end with one of the letters in the set
aAdifeEgGosxX%. These letters denote the following types:
d, i, o, x, XInteger
value, o being octal,
x and X being hexadecimal (using the same case for
a-f as the code). Numeric variables with exactly integer
values will be coerced to integer. Formats d and i
can also be used for logical variables, which will be converted to
0, 1 or NA.
fDouble precision value, in “fixed
point” decimal notation of the form "[-]mmm.ddd". The number of
decimal places ("d") is specified by the precision: the default is 6;
a precision of 0 suppresses the decimal point. Non-finite values
are converted to NA, NaN or (perhaps a sign followed
by) Inf.
e, EDouble precision value, in
“exponential” decimal notation of the
form [-]m.ddde[+-]xx or [-]m.dddE[+-]xx.
g, GDouble precision value, in %e or
%E format if the exponent is less than -4 or greater than or
equal to the precision, and %f format otherwise.
(The precision (default 6) specifies the number of
significant digits here, whereas in %f, %e, it is
the number of digits after the decimal point.)
a, ADouble precision value, in binary notation
of the form [-]0xh.hhhp[+-]d. This is a binary fraction
expressed in hex multiplied by a (decimal) power of 2. The number
of hex digits after the decimal point is specified by the precision:
the default is enough digits to represent exactly the internal
binary representation. Non-finite values are converted to NA,
NaN or (perhaps a sign followed by) Inf. Format
%a uses lower-case for x, p and the hex
values: format %A uses upper-case.
This should be supported on all platforms as it is a feature of C99.
The format is not uniquely defined: although it would be possible
to make the leading h always zero or one, this is not
always done. Most systems will suppress trailing zeros, but a few
do not. On a well-written platform, for normal numbers there will
be a leading one before the decimal point plus (by default) 13
hexadecimal digits, hence 53 bits. The treatment of denormalized
(aka ‘subnormal’) numbers is very platform-dependent.
sCharacter string. Character NAs are
converted to "NA".
%Literal % (none of the extra formatting
characters given below are permitted in this case).
Conversion by as.character is used for non-character
arguments with s and by as.double for
non-double arguments with f, e, E, g, G. NB: the length is
determined before conversion, so do not rely on the internal
coercion if this would change the length. The coercion is done only
once, so if length(fmt) > 1 then all elements must expect the
same types of arguments.
In addition, between the initial % and the terminating
conversion character there may be, in any order:
m.nTwo numbers separated by a period, denoting the
field width (m) and the precision (n).
-Left adjustment of converted argument in its field.
+Always print number with sign: by default only negative numbers are printed with a sign.
Prefix a space if the first character is not a sign.
0For numbers, pad to the field width with leading zeros. For characters, this zero-pads on some platforms and is ignored on others.
#specifies “alternate output” for numbers, its
action depending on the type:
For x or X, 0x or 0X will be prefixed
to a non-zero result. For e, e, f, g
and G, the output will always have a decimal point; for
g and G, trailing zeros will not be removed.
Further, immediately after % may come 1$ to 99$
to refer to numbered argument: this allows arguments to be
referenced out of order and is mainly intended for translators of
error messages. If this is done it is best if all formats are
numbered: if not the unnumbered ones process the arguments in order.
See the examples. This notation allows arguments to be used more than
once, in which case they must be used as the same type (integer,
double or character).
A field width or precision (but not both) may be indicated by an
asterisk *: in this case an argument specifies the desired
number. A negative field width is taken as a '-' flag followed by a
positive field width. A negative precision is treated as if the
precision were omitted. The argument should be integer, but a double
argument will be coerced to integer.
There is a limit of 8192 bytes on elements of fmt, and on
strings included from a single %letter conversion
specification.
Field widths and precisions of %s conversions are interpreted
as bytes, not characters, as described in the C standard.
The C doubles used for R numerical vectors have signed zeros, which
sprintf may output as -0, -0.000 ....
A character vector of length that of the longest input. If any
element of fmt or any character argument is declared as UTF-8,
the element of the result will be in UTF-8 and have the encoding
declared as UTF-8. Otherwise it will be in the current locale's
encoding.
The format string is passed down the OS's sprintf function, and
incorrect formats can cause the latter to crash the R process . R
does perform sanity checks on the format, but not all possible user
errors on all platforms have been tested, and some might be terminal.
The behaviour on inputs not documented here is ‘undefined’, which means it is allowed to differ by platform.
Original code by Jonathan Rougier.
Kernighan, B. W. and Ritchie, D. M. (1988) The C Programming Language. Second edition, Prentice Hall. Describes the format options in table B-1 in the Appendix.
The C Standards, especially ISO/IEC 9899:1999 for ‘C99’. Links can be found at http://developer.r-project.org/Portability.html.
man sprintf on a Unix-alike system.
formatC for a way of formatting vectors of numbers in a
similar fashion.
paste for another way of creating a vector combining
text and values.
gettext for the mechanisms for the automated translation
of text.
## be careful with the format: most things in R are floats
## only integer-valued reals get coerced to integer.
sprintf("%s is %f feet tall\n", "Sven", 7.1) # OK
try(sprintf("%s is %i feet tall\n", "Sven", 7.1)) # not OK
sprintf("%s is %i feet tall\n", "Sven", 7 ) # OK
## use a literal % :
sprintf("%.0f%% said yes (out of a sample of size %.0f)", 66.666, 3)
## various formats of pi :
sprintf("%f", pi)
sprintf("%.3f", pi)
sprintf("%1.0f", pi)
sprintf("%5.1f", pi)
sprintf("%05.1f", pi)
sprintf("%+f", pi)
sprintf("% f", pi)
sprintf("%-10f", pi) # left justified
sprintf("%e", pi)
sprintf("%E", pi)
sprintf("%g", pi)
sprintf("%g", 1e6 * pi) # -> exponential
sprintf("%.9g", 1e6 * pi) # -> "fixed"
sprintf("%G", 1e-6 * pi)
## no truncation:
sprintf("%1.f", 101)
## re-use one argument three times, show difference between %x and %X
xx <- sprintf("%1$d %1$x %1$X", 0:15)
xx <- matrix(xx, dimnames = list(rep("", 16), "%d%x%X"))
noquote(format(xx, justify = "right"))
## More sophisticated:
sprintf("min 10-char string '%10s'",
c("a", "ABC", "and an even longer one"))
## Platform-dependent bad example from qdapTools 1.0.0:
## may pad with spaces or zeroes.
sprintf("%09s", month.name)
n <- 1:18
sprintf(paste0("e with %2d digits = %.", n, "g"), n, exp(1))
## Using arguments out of order
sprintf("second %2$1.0f, first %1$5.2f, third %3$1.0f", pi, 2, 3)
## Using asterisk for width or precision
sprintf("precision %.*f, width '%*.3f'", 3, pi, 8, pi)
## Asterisk and argument re-use, 'e' example reiterated:
sprintf("e with %1$2d digits = %2$.*1$g", n, exp(1))
## re-cycle arguments
sprintf("%s %d", "test", 1:3)
## binary output showing rounding/representation errors
x <- seq(0, 1.0, 0.1); y <- c(0,.1,.2,.3,.4,.5,.6,.7,.8,.9,1)
cbind(x, sprintf("%a", x), sprintf("%a", y))